Digital Camera Basics

An electronics on-line discussion forum contains a story about an elderly woman who wanted a simple camera to take pictures of her grandchildren. When she received a digital camera for Christmas, she looked puzzled for a moment and then asked, “Where do you put in the film?” This humorous example demonstrates how the revolutionary technology of digital cameras may be mystifying for those who have difficulty grasping the concept of a “filmless” camera! For almost a century, photography enthusiasts sagely discussed such topics as 35mm film, light meters and F-stops; today, digital cameras have made such topics all but obsolete.

Howstuffworks.com contains an article by Gurevich, Karim, and Wilson that greatly simplifies an explanation of how digital cameras work. Very simply, they explain that CDs, mp3’s, and DVDs all share the same technology: they convert traditional analog “wave” data into digital data based upon “bits.” In so doing, this radical shift in technology has changed greatly – and forever – how we do things and what has become possible including digital “filmless” cameras. While film cameras depend upon chemical and mechanical processes, digital cameras contain a computer that records images electronically.

In 1994, Kodak and Apple developed and sold the first digital cameras. Today there are hundreds of models to choose from, depending upon the type of pictures you need, the complexity with which you’re comfortable, and what digital camera you can afford. For everyday use, most people prefer a “point and shoot” camera that isn’t complex, takes good quality pictures that can be loaded onto computers or printed for personal use and to send to friends, and is affordable. According to a number of consumer guides and customer reviews, the top ten digital cameras in the low, mid, and high price ranges are:

1. Nikon D300 (high)
2. Canon EOS 5D (high)
3. Canon EOS 40D (high)
4. HP Photosmart M547 (low, great value)
5. FujiFilm Finepix S700 (mid)
6. GE A730 (mid)
7. Nikon D200 (high)
8. Canon EOS Digital Rebel Xsi (high)
9. Panasonic Lumix DMC-FZ18 (mid)
10. Canon EOS 30D (high)

The point should be made that what constitutes a “great” digital camera is usually in the eye of the beholder. One person’s “top ten” list is almost certain to differ from another person’s. For example, a digital camera that is making devoted converts is the Casio Exilim series that sells in the mid-level price range, depending upon your digital camera photography needs. On the other end, Digital Camera.com rates the Pentax Optio E-10 as “the worst digital camera ever.”
With all these differing opinions, what’s the best way to buy the digital camera that’s right for you? If you simply want to take personal pictures, choose a digital camera that has at least three megapixels. This will give you good quality pictures at a very affordable price. Remember that the higher the number of megapixels, the better quality your pictures will be, but the digital camera you choose will be more complex and more expensive. Also consider the size and shape of the camera; is it easy for you to carry in your purse or pocket? Finally, be sure your digital camera has at least 256-512 megabites of space on its memory card so you won’t have to buy additional memory cards. Taking all these factors into consideration will help you enjoy capturing treasured memories for years to come.

10 Tips for Taking Better Pictures

Many people think they have to have an expensive, top of the line digital camera to take great photographs, but the secret to a great picture is not the camera, it is the photographer. If you try these simple tips when using your digital camera you will reap the rewards of better photographs no matter what your subject matter is.

1. Position your subject

Use the Rule of Thirds to make your photographs more interesting. Imagine the scene divided into three sections, like tic- tac- toe, horizontally and vertically. Positioning your subject at the intersection of those lines will break up symmetry and result in a compelling photo. If you don’t get the perfect shot, you can crop it with Photoshop. You should be able to get a free download for Photoshop at the Adobe website.

2. Choose the Right Backgrounds for your Subject

Simple backgrounds are best for subjects with busy patterns. You can also adjust the depth of field to focus on objects closer to you while blurring objects far away. Simple subjects look best against a more detailed background. Be sure the background doesn’t interfere and take attention away from your subject.

3. Create Distance and Dimension

A photo of a distant subject can seem static and one-dimensional. Including subjects nearer to you in your photos gives a sense of distance. Blurring the background focuses attention on your subject.

4. Choose an Orientation that Suits your Subject

Your camera produces a rectangular image which gives you two orientations to work with-vertical or horizontal. Your subject will lend itself to one or the other. One sure way to find out is simply to take your photo both ways and decide which is best.

5. Use a Unique Point of View/ Get in Close to your Subject

Break the habit of shooting everything from eye level. Experiment with kneeling down to capture subjects from near the ground, or photographing subjects above you. Get in close to your subject -- close-up photography adds intimacy to your photos and helps capture all the hidden details and moments you might not ever see. Learn Photoshop so you can edit, crop and enhance your digital photos.

6. Use your surroundings to Frame Your Subject

Position your subject in front of an interesting doorway, window, scene, etc. to frame your subjects, keeping the Rule of Thirds in mind.

7. Avoid Underexposed Pictures

Indoors - move near a window or bring a lamp into the room. Move closer to your subject. Manually adjust the shutter speed on your camera. Change exposure settings. For lighter photos, adjust exposure up; for darker photos, adjust down. You are able to see what your image will look like as you adjust this setting

8. Avoid Overexposed pictures

On sunny days, find a shady spot to photograph your subjects and use the flash which will cast an even light over your subject. Take advantage of overcast days to avoid shadows. When indoors, provide as much natural light as possible to avoid using the flash which may wash out colors and cast harsh shadows. Avoid the midday sun, early morning and late evenings are better times for photography.

9. Avoid Red Eye

Turn off your camera's flash or if it's too dark to go without a flash, ask your subject to look toward the camera, but not directly at the lens. By taking daytime photos, you may eliminate the need for a flash. Bring in additional light sources if needed. Try stand further away from your subject. If you try all this and still have red eye, try using Photoshop to edit your photograph.

10. Avoid Blurry Photos

Avoid shutter lag by pressing the button halfway down before you shoot your photo. When you are ready to take the shot, press all the way down to instantly capture the desired photograph. Use a tripod or brace yourself against a stationary object to hold the camera still. If your subject is moving, use the Action mode on your camera. The Action setting automatically optimizes the shutter speed to capture the action.

The best way to learn to take good digital photos is to takes lots and lots of pictures. You can just delete those you don’t want. Learn Photoshop so you can to make corrections, enhance your pictures, and use special effects to make your digital photographs look like a pro’s.

Digital Photo Dodge and Burn

Dodge and Burn are techniques for fine tuning exposure in selected areas of digital images. This is a how to for an alternative process to Photoshop's inbuilt tools.

Terms, dodge and burn, come from common practice in traditional film darkrooms where image manipulation is an important part of the photographic process.

• Burning is when printing from a film negative everything is back to front, so increasing the light or burning an area of a print makes it darker.
• Dodge naturally is the opposite, where blocking light from the enlarger preventing from it reaching the photographic paper makes that area of the print lighter.

There are specific dodge and burn tools in digital image editing programs for selectively altering the exposure of a digital image. However, there are other methods offering subtle benefits in producing realistic image enhancement.

Layer Blending and Paintbrush

This method’s main advantage is the enhancement of shadow detail in areas where it is applied. This tutorial uses Adobe Photoshop CS2, but the GIMP has features for similar results.

Firstly, create a new layer, and in the dialog box configure it for soft light mode and check the fill with soft-light-neutral color (50% gray) box. This sets the background for the new layer and determines how this new layer blends with the original layer.

Then using the paintbrush tool paint areas in the new layer with black for a burn effect. When the two layers blend with the soft light option, these areas will appear darker with more saturated colors, similar to the effect of a polarizing filter. This helps bring out details in the clouds. Painting with a white brush produces a dodge effect on the image.

Set the brush tool to a large size, in the order of 500 pixels, and make sweeping passes over the target area. With the opacity of the brush set to a low value, in the order of 15 to 20%, the changes are easily controllable.

The soft light blending of the two layers does not affect areas evenly. Rather it affects darker areas more than lighter areas, enhancing texture and shadows. This technique is not a cure for poor exposure. If the image is too dark or light areas have blown highlights, then this process will not rescue them, its main purpose is to fine tune scenes with difficult exposure. In addition, it is not a substitute for graduated neutral density filters, or polarizing filters, rather t use it in conjunction with these aids.

This process only makes slight changes; it can have greater effect by increasing the opacity of the brush or repeating the process on additional layers. Although this really defeats the purpose of this process, as its main advantages are subtle and gentle enhancements. If it is sparingly applied, the resultant image retains a natural look and does not have that artificial heavily Photoshopped look. Photographers still need to pay attention to preserving highlights when making the initial exposure.

Example Photos

The example photo has a great range of contrast, from the deep shadows of Launceston’s Cataract Gorge, to the bright sky and the golden tree lit by full sun. Burning the darkened the sky brought out the blue, while the patch of white cloud retains its brightness.

The very bright tree leaves were toned down or burnt, while the rocks within the gorge’s shadow were dodged to reveal more of the texture of the rock face. Because of the uneven way this affects the image, the textures of light and shade within treated areas increased.

The copyright of the article Digital Photo Dodge and Burn in Digital Photography is owned by Philip Northeast. Permission to republish Digital Photo Dodge and Burn must be granted by the author in writing.

Digital versus film photography

Quality

[edit] Spatial resolution

There are many measures that can be used to assess the quality of still photographs. The most discussed of these is spatial resolution, i.e. the number of separate points in the photograph.^{[citation needed]} This is measured by how many picture cells make up the photo, usually counted in the millions and hence called "megapixels".^{[citation needed]}

The comparison of resolution between film and digital photography is complex. Measuring the resolution of both film and digital photographs depends on numerous issues. For film, this issue depends on the size of film used (35 mm, Medium format or Large format), the speed of the film used and the quality of lenses in the camera. Additionally, since film is an analogue medium, it does not have pixels so its resolution measured in pixels can only be an estimate.

Similarly, digital cameras rarely perform to their stated megapixel count.^{[citation needed]} Other factors are important in digital camera resolution such as the actual number of pixels used to store the image, the effect of the Bayer pattern or other sensor filters on the digital sensor, and the image processing algorithm used to interpolate sensor pixels to image pixels. In addition, digital sensors are generally arranged in a rectangular pattern, making images susceptible to moire pattern artifacts, whereas film is immune to such effects due to the random orientation of grains.^{[citation needed]}

Estimates of the resolution of a photograph taken with a 35 mm film camera vary. It is possible for more resolution to be recorded if, for example, a finer grain film and/or developer are used or less resolution to be recorded with poor quality optics or low light levels. The digital megapixel equivalent of film is highly variable and roughly depends on film speed. Slow, fine-grained 35 mm B&W films with speeds of ISO 50 to 100 have estimated megapixel equivalents of 20 to 30 megapixels. Color films (both negative and slide types) are estimated between 8 and 12 megapixels. This would place film cameras (as of 2008) well over almost all point and shoot digital cameras. However, different films with the same ISO speeds can have different linear resolutions, so a direct comparison to digital is not easy. Resolution for 35mm film drops drastically with higher ISO ratings, particularly above ISO 400.^{[citation needed]}

While 35 mm is the standard format for consumer cameras, many professional film cameras use Medium format or Large format (generally sheet) films which, due to the size of the film used, can boast resolution many times greater than the current top-of-the-range digital cameras. For example, it is estimated that a medium format film photograph can record around 50 megapixels, while large format films can record around 200 megapixels (4 × 5 inch)^[1] which would equate to around 800 megapixels on the largest common film format, 8 × 10 inches. However, the estimate above does not take into account lens sharpness.^{[citation needed]}

The question of photo quality often comes up when attempting to print a digital image at various sizes. The following tables can aid the consumer in determining a maximum photo print size based upon the megapixel depth^[2]:

MegaPixel Size	Image Resolution	Outstanding Print fine compression	Very Good Print	Fair Print
1	480 x 640	- - - -	Wallets	Up to 4x6
1.2	768 x 1024	Wallets	Up to 4x6	Up to 5x7
1.5	1024 x 1280	Up to 3x5	Up to 5x7	Up to 8x10
2	1200 x 1600	Up to 4x6	Up to 8x10	Up to 10x15
3	1536 x 2048	Up to 5x7	Up to 8x12	Up to 12x18
4	1800 x 2400	Up to 6x9	Up to 11x14	Up to 16x20
5	1932 x 2580	Up to 6x9	Up to 12x18	Up to 16x24
6	2016 x 3040	Up to 8x10	Up to 12x18	Up to 20x30
7.1	2304 x 3072	Up to 8x10	Up to 16x24	Up to 24x36
8.3	2336 x 3504	Up to 10x15	Up to 20x30	Up to 30x40
10.2	2592 x 3872	Up to 11x14	Up to 24x30	Up to 30x40
10.9	2704 x 4060	Up to 11x14	Up to 24x36	Up to 36x48
16.6	3328 x 4992	Up to 12x18	Up to 36x48	Up to 48x64

When deciding between film and digital and between different types of camera you want to use for a given project, it is necessary to take into account the medium which will be used for display, and the viewing distance. For instance, if a photograph will only be viewed on a television or computer display (which can resolve only about .3 megapixels^[3] and 1-2 megapixels, respectively, as of 2008. HD sets of 1080p are around 1.8mp), then the resolution provided by a low-end digital cameras may be sufficient. For standard 4 × 6 inch prints, it is debatable whether there will be any perceived quality difference between digital and film when it comes to resolution. However color film will generally have the ability to reproduce a much wider range of colors than digital sensors smaller than 3 megapixels. The difference is visible on most modern computer monitors and on traditional chemically processed prints, but may not be noticeable on output media with limited color pallets such as lower end desktop inkjet prints and even large media such as billboards. Comparisons can depend on the gamut of the output media, which can influence the perception of resolution. An output media with a smaller gamut will need to use more dpi to reproduce a given color.

[edit] Noise levels

It should be noted that a special case exists for long exposure photography - Currently available technology contributes random noise to the images taken by digital cameras, produced by thermal noise and manufacturing defects. Some digital cameras apply noise reduction to long exposure photographs to counteract this. For very long exposures it is necessary to operate the detector at low temperatures to avoid noise impacting the final image. Film grain is not affected by exposure time, although the apparent speed of the film does change with longer exposures, a phenomenon known as reciprocity failure.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Dynamic range

As of early 2008, many current DSLRs offer a dynamic range that is as wide or wider than film such as the Canon 5D^[4], 30D^[5], 40D^[6], Nikon D40^[7], D40x^[8], D80^[9], D200 ^[10]), and Sony A700.^[11] CCDs such as Fuji's Super CCD, which combines photosites of different sizes, have also addressed this problem with a gain of a much as 3 stops of range, but this has been at the expense of decreased actual resolution.^[12]

Drawing showing the relative sizes of sensors used in most current digital cameras.

[edit] Effects of sensor size

Most digital cameras, even most digital SLRs, have sensors that are smaller than a standard frame of 35 mm film. These smaller sensors have a number of effects on the captured image and the use of the camera:^[13]

1. Increased depth of field.
2. Decreased light sensitivity and increased pixel noise.
3. For digital SLRs, cropping of the field of view when using lenses designed for 35 mm camera.
4. Lenses can be smaller, since they only need to project light onto a smaller image area
5. Increased degree of enlargement.

The depth of field of a camera/lens combination increases as the film/sensor size decreases. This is arguably an advantage for compact digital cameras since they are intended for taking snapshots. It means that more of the scene will be in focus than with a larger sensor, and the autofocus system does not need to be as accurate to capture an acceptable image. However, art photography often makes use of a limited depth of field to create special effects, such as isolating a subject from the background. When using a digital camera with a small sensor, the photographer would have to use a larger aperture on the lens to achieve similar amounts of "bokeh".^{[citation needed]}

Light sensitivity and pixel noise are both related to pixel size, which is in turn related to sensor size and resolution. As the resolution of sensors increase, the size of the individual pixels has to decrease. This smaller pixel size means that each one collects less light and the resulting signal is amplified more to produce the final value. This amplification also includes an amount of noise in the signal. With a smaller signal, the signal-to-noise ratio decreases. Not only is more noise present in the image (relatively speaking), but the relatively higher noise floor means that less useful information can be extracted from the darker parts of the image.^[13]

Most digital SLRs use lens mounts originally designed for film cameras, commonly 35 mm. If the camera has a smaller sensor than the intended film frame, the field of view of the lens is cropped. This crop factor is often called a "focal length multiplier" since the effect can be simplified to that of multiplying the focal length of the lens. For lenses that are not "digital specific" (designed for a smaller sensor despite using the 35 mm-compatible lens mount) this has the slight beneficial side effect of only using the center part of the lens, where the image quality is normally best; the "soft edges" are cropped off.^{[citation needed]}

Only a few of the most expensive digital SLRs have so-called "full-frame" sensors — a sensor the same size as a 35 mm film frame (36 × 24 mm). These larger sensors eliminate the issues of depth of field and crop factor when compared to 35 mm film cameras.^{[citation needed]}

With compact digital cameras the sensors are tiny compared to DSLRs. This means that prints are extreme enlargements of the original image, and that the lens has to perform outstandingly in order to provide enough resolution to match the tiny pixels on the sensor. However, many modern compact camera lenses, even 12x "super-zoom" designs, achieve the needed sharpness. The use of a small sensor also has the effect of increasing depth of field to the extent of making images very "flat" looking because backgrounds can not be blurred except for subjects very close to the camera.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Convenience and flexibility

Digital photography is flexible to the extreme; a photographer can change anything about a photograph after it has been taken.

These two pictures are a before and after demonstrating the capabilities of the digital photographer.

This has been one of the major drivers of the widespread adoption of digital cameras.^{[citation needed]} Before the advent of digital cameras, once a photograph was taken, the roll of film would need to be finished and sent off to a lab to be developed. Only once the film was returned was it possible to see the photograph. However, most digital cameras incorporate an LCD screen which allows the photograph to be viewed immediately after it has been taken. This allows the photographer to delete undesired or unnecessary photographs, and offers an immediate opportunity to re-take. When a user desires prints, it is only necessary to print the good photographs.

Another major advantage of digital technology is that photographs can be conveniently moved to a personal computer for modification. Many professional-grade digital cameras are capable of storing pictures in a Camera RAW format which stores the output from the sensor directly rather than processing it immediately to an image. When edited in suitable software, such as Adobe Photoshop or dcraw, the photographer can manipulate certain parameters of the taken photograph (such as contrast, sharpness or color balance) before it is "developed" into a final image. Less sophisticated users may choose to simply "touch up" the actual content of the recorded image;^{[citation needed]} software with which to do this is often provided with consumer-grade cameras. (See Digital image editing.)

[edit] Price

The two formats (film and digital) have different cost emphases. With digital photography, cameras tend to be significantly more expensive than film ones,^{[citation needed]} comparing like for like. This is offset by the fact that taking photographs is effectively cost-free.

With film photography, good-quality cameras tend to be less complicated and, therefore, less expensive, but at the expense of ongoing film and in particular processing costs. The photographer will also only identify poor shots after paying developing and printing costs.

35mm film does offer the photographer much more control over the depth-of-film than a 'crop' body DSLR, and the entry cost differential to full-frame photography can therefore be very large - 35mm SLR's can be purchased for a tenth of the price of a full-frame DSLR. Since the lenses from the main brands are interchangable between SLR and DSLRs, film can still be an attractive route into photography because of this.

There are also additional costs associated with digital photography, such as specialist batteries, memory cards, and long-term storage. However these combined are likely to be very much less than developing costs.

With many photographers switching to digital, many film cameras (and associated equipment like lenses) are now available on the second-hand market (especially online auction sites like eBay) at often very reduced prices.

[edit] Robustness

Dust on the image plane is a constant issue for photographers. DSLR cameras are especially prone to dust problems because the sensor is reused for every shot, where a film SLR will effectively have a new "sensor" slid into place for every shot. A fresh, dust free film frame comes at risk of debris such as dust or sand in the camera scratching the film. A single grain of sand can damage a whole roll of film. Also as film SLRs age, they can develop burs in their rollers. With a digital SLRs dust is difficult to avoid, but easy rectify if one has a computer with photo editing software available. Some digital SLRs have systems that remove dust from the sensor by vibrating or knocking the sensor. Some cameras do this in conjunction with software that remembers where dust is located on the sensor and removes dust-affected pixels from images.^{[citation needed]}

One huge advantage to compact point and shoot digital cameras is that they are exclusively available with fixed lenses, so dust is not an issue for them. This is not true of point an shoot film cameras, which are often only light tight and not environmentally sealed.

[edit] Archiving

When choosing between film and digital formats, one may need to consider the suitability of each as an archival medium.^{[citation needed]}

Films and prints processed and stored in ideal conditions have demonstrated an ability to remain substantially unchanged for more than 100 years. Gold or platinum toned prints probably have a lifespan limited only by the lifespan of the base material, probably many hundreds of years.^{[citation needed]}

The archival potential of digital photographs is less well understood since digital media have existed for only the last 50 years. There exist three problems which must be overcome for archival usage: physical stability of the recording medium, future readability of the storage medium and future readability of the file formats used for storage.

Many digital media are not capable of storing data for prolonged periods of time. For example, magnetic disks and tapes may lose their data after twenty years, flash memory cards even less. Good quality optical media may be the most durable storage media for digital data.^{[citation needed]}

It is important to consider the future readability of storage media. Assuming the storage media can continue to hold data for prolonged periods of time, the short lifespan of digital technologies often causes the drives to read media to become unavailable. For example, the first 5¼-inch Floppy disks were first made available in 1976. However, the drives to read them are already extremely rare just 30 years later.^[14]

It must also be considered whether there still exists software which can decode the data. For example, many modern digital cameras save photographs in JPEG format. This format has existed for only around 15 years. Whether it will still be readable in a century is unknown, although the huge number of JPEG files currently being produced will surely influence this issue.^[14]

Most professional cameras can save in a RAW image format, the future of which is much more uncertain. Some of these formats contain proprietary data which is encrypted or protected by patents, and could be abandoned by their makers at any time for simple economic reasons. This could make it difficult to read these 'raw' files in the future, unless the camera makers were to release information on the file formats.^[15]

However, digital archives have several methods of overcoming such obstacles. In order to counteract the file format problems, many organizations prefer to choose an open and popular file format. Doing so increases the chance that software will exist to decode the file in the future.^{[citation needed]}

Additionally many organizations take an active approach to archiving rather than relying on formats being readable decades later. This takes advantage of the ability to make perfect copies of digital media. So, for example, rather than leaving data on a format which may potentially become unreadable or unsupported, the information can typically be copied to newer media without loss of quality. This is only possible with digital media.^{[citation needed]}

And, of course, the digital images can always be printed out and saved like traditional photographs although there are few , if any, commercial services available producing true silver halide prints from digital sources. All dye based prints, as noted above, have only limited permanence (with the exception of Cibachrome).^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Integrity

Film produces a first generation image, which contains only the information admitted through the aperture of the camera. Film "sees" in color, in a specific spectral band such as orthochromatic, or in broad panchromatic sensitivity. Differences in development technique can produce subtle changes in the finished negative or positive, but once this process is complete it is considered permanent.^{[citation needed]}

Film images are very difficult to fabricate, thus in law enforcement and in cases where the authenticity of an image is important (passport or visa photographs), film provides greater security over digital, which has the disadvantage that photographs can be conveniently moved to a personal computer for modification.^{[citation needed]}

Nikon film scanner, right, which converts 35mm film images to digital

[edit] Converting film to digital

Film photographs may be digitized in a process known as scanning. They may then be manipulated as digital photographs.

There are currently three ways to scan or convert a film image to digital format.^{[citation needed]} The first is through a reflective image scanner. Inexpensive flatbed scanners, depending upon the model used, can scan a paper-sized image from 8" x 14" to ledger size, 11" x 17". An expensive and very high resolution drum scanner can also be used to scan reflective and transparent images.

The second method is to use a dedicated film scanner, such as the Nikon Coolscan (pictured) which can scan 35 mm transparencies and negatives. Other film scanners can scan 120 film, typically up to 6 x 7 cm or 6 x 9 cm.

The third method is to take a digital photograph of the source image. One can mount a digital camera on a copy stand (or an old enlarger with its projection head removed) and photograph the source image. It is also possible to use a slide projector to project the image from a transparency and then take a digital photograph of the projection.

[edit] References

1. ^ Resolution Test Area 2: trees and Mountains R. N. Clark, 8 April 2001. Retrieved 2 September 2006.
2. ^ Montclair Photo Resolution Guide
3. ^ Why do Images Look Crappy Played on a TV
4. ^ Canon EOS 5D Review: 22. Photographic tests:
5. ^ Canon EOS 30D Review: 21. Photographic tests:
6. ^ Canon EOS 40D Review: 20. Photographic tests:
7. ^ Nikon D40 Review: 18. Photographic tests:
8. ^ Nikon D40X Review: 18. Photographic tests:
9. ^ Nikon D80 Review: 19. Photographic tests:
10. ^ Nikon D200 Review: 22. Photographic tests:
11. ^ Sony Alpha DSLR-A700 Review: 20. Photographic tests:
12. ^ Fujifilm S5 Pro Review: 18. Photographic tests:
13. ^ ^{a b} Bob Atkins. Size Matters. Photo.Net Equipment Article, 2003.
14. ^ ^{a b} Stewart Brand. Escaping the Digital Dark Age. Library Journal vol. 124. Issue 2, pp. 46-49, June 20, 2003.
15. ^ Dean M. Chriss. RAW Facts: The short life of today's RAW files: Demystifying the Debacle. DMCPhoto online article, April 29, 2005.

History of photography

Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries. Long before the first photographs were made, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965–1040) invented the camera obscura and pinhole camera,^[2] Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) discovered silver nitrate, and Georges Fabricius (1516–1571) discovered silver chloride. Daniel Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1568. Wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals (photochemical effect) in 1694. The fiction book Giphantie, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, described what can be interpreted as photography.

Photography as a usable process goes back to the 1820s with the development of chemical photography. The first permanent photograph was an image produced in 1826 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce. However, the picture took eight hours to expose, so he went about trying to find a new process. Working in conjunction with Louis Daguerre, they experimented with silver compounds based on a Johann Heinrich Schultz discovery in 1724 that a silver and chalk mixture darkens when exposed to light. Niépce died in 1833, but Daguerre continued the work, eventually culminating with the development of the daguerreotype in 1837. Eventually, France agreed to pay Daguerre a pension for his formula, in exchange for his promise to announce his discovery to the world as the gift of France, which he did in 1839.

Meanwhile, Hercules Florence had already created a very similar process in 1832, naming it Photographie, and William Fox Talbot had earlier discovered another means to fix a silver process image but had kept it secret. After reading about Daguerre's invention, Talbot refined his process so that it might be fast enough to take photographs of people. By 1840, Talbot had invented the calotype process, which creates negative images. John Herschel made many contributions to the new methods. He invented the cyanotype process, now familiar as the "blueprint". He was the first to use the terms "photography", "negative" and "positive". He discovered sodium thiosulphate solution to be a solvent of silver halides in 1819, and informed Talbot and Daguerre of his discovery in 1839 that it could be used to "fix" pictures and make them permanent. He made the first glass negative in late 1839.

In March of 1851, Frederick Scott Archer published his findings in "The Chemist" on the wet plate collodion process. This became the most widely used process between 1852 and the late 1880s when the dry plate was introduced. There are three subsets to the Collodion process; the Ambrotype (positive image on glass), the Ferrotype or Tintype (positive image on metal) and the negative which was printed on Albumen or Salt paper.

Many advances in photographic glass plates and printing were made in through the nineteenth century. In 1884, George Eastman developed the technology of film to replace photographic plates, leading to the technology used by film cameras today.

USING SEPIA SPARINGLY

What is photojournalism if not a multifaceted testament to truth? Although the truth may not always be pretty, the intrepid photojournalist holds his camera up to it. He captures what is real and human and honest. His work stands as a testimony to those moments that define us and define the world around us. He photographs the truth when it is difficult to look at and impossible to look away from; when it’s breathtakingly beautiful; and when it makes one feel connected to the world in a very personal way. The truth may take on different shades, but it never changes.

The same holds true for wedding photojournalists—they are inspired by the setting, the subjects, and the outpouring of different emotions throughout the day. The product of their inspiration is clearly seen in their wedding images. With the right lighting, clever compositions, and appropriate usage of computer programs available, wedding photojournalists’ artistic vision is more readily achieved.

Photo by Joseph Victor Stefanchik

Though based on the proliferation of wedding images that have been given a warm tone (or a brownish tint), it seems a handful of wedding photojournalists have become trigger-happy with tinting their work. Over the past ten years, images with a sepia tone have become ubiquitous. The tipping point has been reached. In these ‘digital revolution’ days, it seems as though everyone is utilizing the warm sepia glow in their wedding photographs.

A number of questions should be asked before you click your mouse and instantly change a photograph’s color scheme to the monochromatic brown. First, let’s ask: Why Sepia?

WHY SEPIA?

Sepia tone is associated with a bygone time. It was used from the late 1800s to the early 1900s for the sake of preservation. A number of photographs taken then and preserved with the pigment from the Sepia cuttlefish are still around today. Over time, we began to connote brown-color-schemed pictures with that period of yore.

Photo by Joseph Victor Stefanchik

For many years, the only sepia toned pictures that were seen were from that era. Then, approximately thirty years ago, photography studios made to look like they’d been plucked out of the Old West popped up in tourist towns throughout America. The photographers therein used sepia tone mainly because it was associated with that period and place in time. These studios have been immortalized in Hollywood films, and they’re generally seen as a part of America’s pop culture history.

Notwithstanding those quirky, faux Western photos, pictures that are given the sepia tone are instilled with a sense of age. They communicate nostalgia and with it a simpler, sweeter time.

WHEN TO USE SEPIA

Weddings wrapped in tradition, are an appropriate subject matter to color in tidings of yesteryear. When sepia tone is added to a wedding photo, instantly it has that romantic, old-time feel. If the bride is the subject, the shades of brown may give her a distinction and demureness that she would not otherwise have. It can also give a photograph a sense of longevity. And that is an appropriate theme to give the union, which is sealed with “until death do us part.” Sepia tone can communicate that this wedding is not only about the here and now. It is forever. These are all good things for a photograph to convey.

One important consideration would be that the elements in the photograph, such as hair and clothing styles, architecture, or transportation vehicles lend themselves to the retro-look sepia offers. The use of sepia can be more successful if your image has one of these elements present.

When sepia tone is added to one wedding photo after another (within the same portfolio), the effect is overdone and their impact may be weakened. What had once stood out and was admired can be lost in a sea of brownish hues; and the technique that had seemed original and artistic loses its lore. The strength of the subject matter, the composition and the lighting becomes diminished when overwhelmed by the brown.

As WPJA member Joseph Victor Stefanchik notes, “A great moment is a great moment; excellent post production can only enhance the moment. Poor post production, such as adding sepia for treatment sake can take away from the moment.”

When deciding whether or not to add sepia tone to a photograph, first ask yourself the following questions: What does it add to the picture? It should fit into the portfolio of the entire wedding. Going through the pictures one at a time, each one should pop out at you. Like every other image that you present to the B&G, the image colored with sepia tone should make you stop and admire it.

Photo by Joseph Victor Stefanchik

BACK TO BASICS

While color photographs capture the numerous vibrant colors throughout the festive day, black and white pictures represent what is timeless, classic, dramatic…and even romantic.

The basics, black-and-white and color photographs are diverse enough to cover the spectrum of settings, emotions and subjects within the wedding context. If you feel obliged to tone your photographs ask yourself why. Is it to instantly create an old-time feel? If so, consider that the same can be accomplished with black and white.

THE BIG PICTURE

If you feel that tinting your photographs will add artistic value to your portfolio, let’s look at the big picture. It’s important to use discretion. Stefanchik comments, “Sepia or warm tones need to be applied, like any other image enhancement, in moderation.” Though when done in moderation, post-production techniques can produce wonderful results, when overdone they can prove disastrous. A small percentage of tinted, even sepia toned pictures is appropriate; however, the majority of wedding photojournalists’ portfolios should be comprised of black-and-white and color images.

When putting together your portfolio, there should be a design to everything you do. No decision in photography should ever be made without asking, “What is the reason for this?” If there is no reason, or the reason is not a good one, there is no need to do it. If you include photographs in which their coloring has been altered, again you must ask yourself, “Why?” Does it add to the overall aesthetic of the portfolio?

Wedding photojournalism is about capturing the truth of a moment, as well as creating a beautiful aesthetic. It is a fine line to walk, and to do so, there must be balance. Leaning too far towards one color scheme can throw off even the most talented photographers, as well as their clients.

Photo by Joseph Victor Stefanchik

Stefanchik points out, “Slowing down our viewers and allowing them to connect with our images is a good thing. Sepia and black and white tones help accomplish this. The majority of us see the world and all of its magnificent color so when a sepia or black and white image presents itself, our brain has to stop, calculate and comprehend.”

—by Lauren Ragland for the Wedding Photojournalist Association

CAPTURING QUIET MOMENTS AT WEDDINGS

Weddings can be chaotic, noisy affairs where emotions are displayed publicly, so one of your biggest challenges can be capturing their quiet, intimate side. Trust, anticipation, skilled observation, savvy lens selection and a host of other judgments make it possible to bag those quiet, poignant moments in images that recall the day for those in attendance, as well as give those who were not in sight into what it was like to have been there. It is all part of the unique value proposition that our members bring to wedding photojournalism.

In college, WPJA photographer Mark Adams of LaCour in Atlanta chose to pursue a degree in anthropology because he wanted to be a photographer. He knew anthropology would help him be more observant of human interaction, he says. “In order to make pictures of real moments, you have to observe personalities, get to know people and see how they interact with others,” he says. “You also have to know when to be quiet and back away.”

Photo by Mark Adams

A newspaper and magazine photojournalist for a number of years before becoming a wedding photographer full time, Adams says he has a passion for documenting real life. “It’s powerful to make pictures of real moments that [enable people] to go back and re-experience those moments.” He succeeded in enabling a bride to relive a tender moment she shared with her father in an award-winning photograph taken during the reception for a large wedding—about 700 guests—in the Columbia Metropolitan Convention Center in downtown Columbia, SC. The three-day Hindu wedding was colorful and ornate, Adams remembers, “Like eye candy. It’s easy to take pretty pictures at a wedding like this, but it’s harder to take meaningful pictures that capture special moments and personalities. That picture is such a great moment because it transcends the [specific] to show universal emotion.”

Adams perceived a strong connection between the bride and her father. “Throughout the day he was so proud,” he says. So when a slideshow showing the bride and groom as children began to play during the reception, Adams looked at the father and wasn’t surprised to see him becoming emotional. Making himself as inconspicuous as possible, Adams trained his lens on the father and waited for emotion to overwhelm him, a moment he was certain would happen. “When the bride looks at that picture in her album she will be transported back in time to that intense personal connection with her dad. That’s what I want her to remember.”

ISOLATING THE MOMENT

Photo by Allegra Gilbert

Like Adams, Allegra Gilbert, a WPJA photographer in Lynchburg, VA, anticipated a quiet, emotional moment for the father of a bride in her summer 2006 award-winning photo. She was taking pictures of the bride, her mother and bridesmaids in a conference room inside the Washington National Cathedral in Washington DC, where the wedding took place, when the father of the bride entered the room. She immediately situated herself so that she could focus entirely on him, knowing he would react to seeing his daughter for the first time in her gown and veil.

“I felt other people [in the photo] would be distracting so I positioned myself to isolate the moment,” she says. “That picture was taken about 20 seconds before the verger [a lay minister] threw everyone out of the room, telling us that the bride and her father had to have some time alone. Being thrown out of a room was a first for me, but it was OK because I had the picture I wanted.”

Gilbert considers herself to be a quiet observer “rather than an in-your-face, wide-angle shooter,” and typically seeks those quiet moments with a 50mm lens on her 30D, moving to an 85mm on her 5D. “I’m more of a sit at the sidewalk café and look at all the people go by type of photographer,” she adds. “I like to observe and I think my work reflects my contemplative style.” To ensure that she doesn’t draw attention to herself, she rarely uses flash and keeps a low profile, and never skulks around in the corners of a room to take candid photos. “That’s odd behavior so it tends to make people take notice,” she says. “I’m just quiet and eventually everyone forgets about me being there.”

She notes that experience helps you be in the right place at the right time. “Sometimes it’s just luck,” she says, “But luck favors the prepared.”

FINDING THE RIGHT SPOT; ANTICIPATION AND TRUST

Anticipation and finding the right spot for capturing a quiet moment is a skill that comes with experience. A wedding photojournalist would normally strive to find opportune moments when the bridal couple were so used to having him around that they were unaware of his presence, even when he makes significant strides to be in place to photograph them.

It’s important to observe human nature and family dynamics before and during a wedding. When wedding photojournalists assure their clients they will capture the day for them completely, the couple feels secure and ignores the camera—the ideal scenario for quiet moments to happen and be captured.

—by Lorna Gentry for the Wedding Photojournalism Association

PATTERNS IN WEDDING PHOTOJOURNALISM

Amid all the chaos of a wedding day, scenes of patterns can help restore a sense of calmness to the moment, creating order from disorder.

And patterns will abound at wedding ceremonies and receptions. For one, you’ll have a number of ushers decked out in the same tuxedo, coupled with bridesmaids wearing the same dress, without any pangs of jealousy. A unifying color or color scheme usually ties all the visual elements together. And there are also numerous props—from chairs and place cards, to champagne glasses and silverware—that all can provide broad canvasses of patterns.

Each pattern presents an attractive opportunity to capture an interesting photo, adding a contrasting dimension to many of the other photos of the event. It’s a breath of fresh air for the eyes too, since patterns appear so frequently in daily life, whether on a tile floor or in slats on a picket fence.

“In general, I think the brain likes to create order from disorder,” says wedding photographer Kelly McCord. “I like finding patterns and repetition that are occurring naturally. It's not something I purposefully try to do. It's just the way I seem to see things.”

That’s why many WPJA members keep an eye out for patterns during weddings, whether they can be incorporated as main subjects in a photograph or as a secondary feature in the shot. The result is a soothing photo that can produce some stunning visual effects.

KEEP AN EYE OUT

Patterns can be found at just about any wedding; it’s largely a matter of keeping an eye out for anything that is visually repetitive.

Rows of chairs or pews, for instance, can be lined up in the frame to show an attractive pattern, as can a number of other static objects at a wedding.

“People put so much effort, money and time into picking these details, colors, cards and flowers—all which are very important and can create interesting patterns,” says Alex Ze-evi Christian, a New York-based WPJA member. “Even though every wedding is filled with patterns, many times they are hidden and can be easily missed. My challenge as a photographer is to discover and photograph them in a way that will enhance the photojournalistic wedding story.”

Also, if the dance floor is packed with dancers doing the electric slide or some other line dance, you can have the chance to capture an action shot of silhouetted figures as they all strike the same pose.

Keep an eye out for the clothes of the wedding participants, since they especially can be incorporated to capture patterns in photos that include a human element. A group of guys wearing their black-and-white tuxedoes, or all the bridesmaids sporting the same pattern, provide a lot of material with which you can work.

At one wedding Joseph Hein shot, he spotted, literally, a pattern he could work with from the get-go: The bridesmaids had all worn bold, polka-dot dresses to the reception. “When I saw those girls, I knew there was going to be a good shot there," says the Seattle, WA-based photojournalist. “The pattern and the moment was what helped it turn out to be a great photo.”

Photo by Joseph Hein

Hein wanted to incorporate the dresses into a more interesting action shot, and got his chance when two bridesmaids went up to cut a cake, which just happened to be decorated in the same polka-dot pattern. He dashed over and snapped away, capturing a polka-dot-centric photo.

BE QUICK

Hein’s polka-dot photo shows just how quick you need to be to catch patterns converging naturally, especially when shooting in the photojournalistic style--when in some cases you only have one shot to capture a particular moment.

So when you see an opportunity to capture a repetitive pattern, take it. Once it’s gone, it may not happen again.

Kelly McCord had only one chance to capture a pattern, where the groomsmen and ring bearer, all in their pinstripe suits, each had their hands clasped behind their backs in a similar grip. “I especially like situations like that when it’s a happenstance that it’s one after another,” she states.

Photo by Kelly McCord

Right after she took the shot, one of the subjects unclasped his hands, wiping away the parallelism in the subject. “To get those kinds of shots, you really have to be on your toes,” McCord says. “It’s easy to help make it happen. It’s not easy for it to happen naturally.”

BE CREATIVE

There are several types of objects at most weddings that number into the hundreds, making them ideal elements for pattern shots. But since the objects are static, you can work with them more freely and frame a creative picture.

Place cards are one such item, arranged “just so” to create a nice pattern of dozens. At one wedding in upstate New York, the couple had arranged for the cards to hang from lines on clothespins, recalls Ze-evi Christian.

Some photos create such a perfect medley of repeating parts that they beg to be shot, and this is one of them. But rather than just take a straight-on shot to merely capture all the cards, she aimed up, framing various lines—the cards, clothes pins and their shadows—in a light blue sky.

She considered staking out the scene, possibly for a hand to grab a card as it hangs, but she couldn’t just perch herself there when the entire wedding was going on.

“If I approach the table and someone is actually grabbing a card, I’ll go for that shot,” she says. “Other times, nobody will grab the card because they don’t want to disturb me. I’m not going to ask for a volunteer.”

All good photos, to a degree, try to make some sort of visual sense, and patterns are one way to make the image click in a viewer’s brain. Taking mental notes of possible patterns at a wedding, and pouncing when the shots are right, can help add dazzling results to the mix.

Most basic photography courses teach participants how to find and capture patterns in everyday settings. Such skills, though very fundamental by virtue of training and experience, remain a vital part of a good wedding photojournalist’s agenda.

“If you’re the type of photographer that’s always looking for patterns,” says Hein, “in general, your photography will be better.”

—by Paul Ziobro for the Wedding Photojournalist Association

How to Get Started in Digital Photography

Whether you are a seasoned photographer or a novice, or just someone who want to do photography as a hobby, the first thing you need to be clear on is, what exactly is digital photography?

Digital photography is the use of a digital camera to capture / take an image that can be viewed on a computer screen. The main benefits of digital photography are:

You can see the result of your work right away

You can delete unwanted photographs instantly

You can easily and cheaply edit your photographs by improving the tone, retouching some areas, adding background etc.

Digital photographs can be send instantly via email

Except for batteries you do not need to constantly buy items to use in digital photography such as films.

Next you will need to decide on the type of digital camera to buy. This will of course depend on the following factors:

How much money you can spend

What is your goal, that is, why do you need to take digital pictures: business, hobby, personal What functionality do you want with your camera

There are two basic types of digital camera, the DSLR (Digital Single lens Reflex) and automatic. If you are really serious about digital photography you will want to get yourself a DSLR since this type of camera gives you more control.

In making a decision on type of digital camera also explore the types of storage media available and see which one may be best for you. The two most popular storage media for digital camera are flashcards (digital film) and microdrives. The storage media in a digital camera is really important; it is what holds the pictures. It is important to read reviews and talk to other users of digital cameras to determine the type of memory, and the capacity of the memory (how much images can it hold) you will need. I recommend flash cards since they have no moving parts and are more reliable.

After you have decided on the type of digital camera to purchase, you must now look at the other types of equipment you need to make a success of digital photography. A good personal computer and printer is needed, especially if you do not wish to pay to have your pictures printed elsewhere.

Your computer is important because this is where you will download, store, edit, review and any number of other things to your photographs. If you are using an older computer, make sure your computer system is compatible with the camera and software you will be using.

If you plan to do this professionally, you will also need to invest in software to help you get the most out of your digital photographs. Software used by professional digital photographers include Adobe Photoshop and ImageReady.

How to take great digital photographs

There are seven main steps to ensuing that you take professional looking digital photographs. These are:

Subject: Pose your subject with care. Even with the best software some faults cannot be totally corrected.

Lighting: Right light is important in digital photography as the appearance of your subject will be affected if lighting is wrong. Too harsh a light will show up wrinkles

ISO calibration: To ensure that your pictures don’t come out looking like they were done by a total novice, check to ensure that your camera is properly calibrated. Getting the right camera setting can be the difference between brilliant pictures and blah.

Composition: Good photography is an art form, so your background is as important as your subject. Too much clutter in your picture will make the result look unprofessional.

White balance: If you want to ensure that your photograph has natural looking colors, then make sure to manually set the white balance.

Don’t be afraid to experiment: Do creative crazy things with your camera, the results may just surprise you. Remember, with a digital camera you can always delete the images if you do not want to keep them.

Zoom and flash: Practice using these features until you find what works best in different situations.

One point to remember about digital photography is that it cannot turn a lousy photography into a professional overnight, but with practice and learning you can become good at photography using a digital camera. And, with enough talent, business savvy, luck, downright determination and love of the craft you might even be able to turn it into a business venture.

By Robert Provencher

Basic Skills in Digital Photography

Basically, there is not much difference between using a digital camera and a manual camera. In fact, most experts believe that using a digital camera actually spoils the photographer, making everything so easy for him. Still, there are many who remain daunted by the prospects of using a digital camera especially when their training comes mainly from manual photography.

There are a number of skills that one needs to learn before switching to the digital format. Read through and find out some of the things that you need to develop.

Computer skills

Digital photography involves dealing with computers. In fact, operating the digital camera is like operating a small computer. There are functions that are actually similar to the computer like formatting and delete and a whole lot of other things. You need to be familiar with the functions in order to be able to maximize the digital camera.

In addition, you also need to be really familiar with computer when storing your picture files and adjusting your photos. With this, you need to be able to perform computer tasks such as cutting, pasting, copying, renaming and opening and closing of files and folders.

There are a number of good books that provide tutorials that will enhance computer skills as well as teach you some of the basics in using the computer with regards to photography. Some books in photography, digital photography will for sure contain sections that deal with computers.

Knowledge in graphic programs

One can actually adjust photos and create a whole lot of effects with the use of graphic programs such as Photoshop. One can actually change the size of the photo, alter the pixels and even change the format into different file types. One good thing with digital cameras is the fact that one can actually alter the pictures taken before printing it.

With the use of these programs, one can erase flaws, sharpen some features of the photo, blur the background and even transfer one photo with another. If one is really good, you can even create one new photo by cutting different elements in various photos and put them all together.

Working knowledge with the various functions of the camera

As mentioned before, working with a digital camera is similar to working with a small computer. In order to maximize the digital camera, you need to master the functions including adjusting the various levels such as the shutter speed, the brightness, the contrast. There are even digital cameras that you can actually use as a manual camera; you just need to learn to adjust the functions.

By Low Jeremy

Landscape Photography

We've all had the experience: Driving through a beautiful landscape, you stop at every scenic overlook to make photographs sure to capture the grandeur of what you see.

You get home, look at the pictures, and find them flat and boring. All the elements that enthralled you at the time are there, but not the feeling. Why?

When we look at a landscape, our eyes travel over it and selectively focus on the elements that we find appealing. Our field of vision encompasses a great deal of the scene, but our eyes and brains have the ability to ignore all except the most alluring details. Lenses and sensors or film cannot do this by themselves. They need help.

Time is the most important investment you can make in getting good landscape pictures. When you arrive in a place you've never visited before, spend time scouting—driving or hiking to different locations, finding different vantage points. Carry a compass to figure out where the sun will rise and set, and imagine how the place would look in different kinds of light. This can take some practice because you also have to look at where the light will not be falling. Photographing a canyon, for example, you might see that the west wall will be beautifully lit in the early morning, if the canyon is deep, however, the east wall will be in such complete shadow that your camera will be capable of rendering it only as a great black blob. Unless this is the effect you want, you'll either have to modify your composition, shoot it later in the day, or plan to return on an overcast day when both sides will be photographable.

LANDSCAPE SUBJECTS

Flowing Water

If a river or stream flows through the landscape you are shooting, think about the character of it and how to convey that character in the image. A big, slow river looks and feels different from a fast-moving mountain stream. The water can be the center of interest in the image, or it can serve as an element in your composition—as a diagonal or other leading line, as a horizontal line, or as a shape that complements other elements in the frame.

Look carefully for reflections in the water. You can use some reflections to enhance the image—the colors of reflected autumn leaves, for instance—but others may just be distracting. You may have to move around a bit to include or eliminate them, or return when the sun is at a different angle. Use a polarizing filter to eliminate some of the reflection and increase contrast; rotate it until you have the effect you want.

Forests

Photographing forests presents a different set of challenges. First, think about the character of the forest you want to shoot and the feeling you want to convey in your image. Should it feel dark and brooding, or light and airy? Are there any special features that will help express how you feel about it?

As with any photograph, find a point of interest. It might be one slightly different tree trunk, a path winding through, or a splash of color on a flowering vine. Whatever it is, compose in such a way to lead the viewer to it. Look for shafts of light penetrating the canopy or one spot on the forest floor directly lit by the sun.

Whether you are shooting toward a forest or shooting from inside it, look for patterns, lines, and other compositional elements you can use. Try both wide and telephoto lenses. A wide lens looking up at the trees will make them soar; a telephoto will compress a row of trunks. Lie down and look straight up through the branches; climb a tree to look down the path.

Plains and Prairies

Wide-open spaces such as plains and prairies are among the hardest landscapes of all to photograph well because often they lack an obvious point of interest. In most cases, the huge scope of the scene is one of the things you're trying to communicate. Even so, remember that viewers need something on which to focus. Look for an element peculiar to that place and use it as a point of interest that says something about the scene and imparts a sense of scale. You don't want the viewer's eyes to wander aimlessly around the frame, so use whatever might be available to lead him into the image—a winding road, a stream, or a fence line, for example.

Like every forest, every plain has its own personality, so hunt around until you have found an angle and composition that reflect it. What is the most important feature of this particular place? Think about the sky. Do you want a lot or a little of it? A clear blue sky might best reflect the character of one plain, a brewing storm another. Remember the rule of thirds. If the sky is important, place the horizon along the bottom third division of the frame. If it is not, put it along the upper third.

Deserts

Look for ways to show the rugged nature and the beauty of deserts. In the middle of the day, find waves caused by the heat. Using a long lens to compress them, you'll get dramatic shots that really say "hot." Deserts are also great places for pictures of stars. There is no humidity, and usually no terrestrial lights to interfere, so stars seem more numerous and are unusually brilliant. Watch the way the color of the sand changes throughout the day with the angle of the sun. Think about ways to capture the characteristics of the desert. A wide shot might best portray one desert, while a close-up of one plant struggling to survive on the side of a dune might best represent another.

Think about including the sun in your photograph—it's one sure way to say hot and harsh. But shooting the sun is tricky. On a clear day, the sun is so bright that your camera's meter will tend to underexpose everything else in the frame. Shoot in manual mode, or take a reading without the sun in frame, depressing the shutter button halfway to hold the exposure, then reframe before you shoot. If you're shooting film, bracket a lot to make sure of getting the exposure you want. With a digital camera, check the images as you shoot. Wide-angle lenses tend to work best because the blown-out sun takes up less of the image, but they are susceptible to lens flare. The advantage of SLRs is that you can see the flare when you frame the image.

Seacoasts

Consider these different scenes: a tranquil tropic isle with turquoise water lapping at a white, sandy beach; storm waves pounding a rocky New England shore; a densely packed vacation beach. What kind of shore are you photographing, and how can you best convey it? What time of day, what kind of weather, and what season is most appropriate for showing its character? These are the kinds of questions to ask yourself while scouting for the right vantage point and composition before shooting. Every shoreline is different in some way. Show the difference in your images.

Once you have thought about the character of the shore, look for elements you can use to reinforce the feeling you're after. Palm trees make a good frame for a tropical beach; a spray of water shooting over rocks adds drama to a rugged coastal scene. As in the desert, be careful about sand. If it's windy, be sure to protect your camera and lenses from blowing sand. Don't open the camera back unless you are in an area that is well sheltered.

Mountains

Are the mountains you're shooting rugged or worn, threatening or enchanting? What feeling do you get from them? Look for elements that will reinforce your feeling and convey it to the viewer. What composition, angle, light, and weather seem most appropriate? Look for the telling details that reflect the spirit of the mountains, too.

From: Photography Field Guide: Landscapes and Ultimate Photography Field Guide: Landscapes
By: Robert Caputo
August 2007